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Reproductive performance and life expectancy of the two-spotted spider mite (TSSM), Tetranychus urticae Koch were determined on seven eggplant cultivars (Isfahan, Dezful, Shend-Abad, Neishabour, Bandar-Abbas, Jahrom and Borazjan) at 25 ± 1°C, 60 ± 5% R.H. and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) hours. The results revealed that the TSSM gross hatch rate varied from 59% on Bandar-Abbas to 83% on Dezful. The gross fecundity rate was 59.726, 31.430, 31.443, 14.461, 19.328, 16.035 and 20.560 eggs/female and the net fecundity rate was 25.804, 17.496, 15.139, 7.620, 5.931, 7.526 and 11.947 eggs/female on the above-mentioned cultivars, respectively. The highest and lowest value of the net fertility rate was 20.735 eggs/female on Isfahan and 3.495 eggs/female on Bandar-Abbas, respectively. Also, the gross fertility rate was the highest on Isfahan (47.994 eggs/female) and the lowest on Bandar-Abbas (11.390 eggs/female). The values of the mean eggs per day varied from 2.040 to 6.560 eggs/female, which was minimum on Neishabour and maximum on Isfahan. The life expectancy of one-day-old adults of the TSSM was estimated to be 7.550, 8.380, 5.820, 4.850, 5.440, 5.330 and 3.950 days on the above-mentioned cultivars, respectively. Comparison of the reproductive parameters of the TSSM on the examined cultivars revealed that Isfahan was the most susceptible cultivar and Neishabour was the most resistant cultivar to this pest. Using resistant host plants is one of the most important components of an integrated pest management program.

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This study was conducted to evaluate the age-specific functional response of Psyllaephagus zdeneki Noyes & Fallahzadeh (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) at different nymph densities of olive psyllid, Euphyllura pakistanica Loginova (Hemiptera: Psyllidae). Due to parasitoid behaviour of feeding and parasitizing the host, both traits were separately explored on a daily functional response. Results of logistic regression revealed a type II functional response of the wasp independent of their ages. The handling time (T_h) and searching efficiency (a) were estimated using the Rogers equation. The highest searching efficiency for both parasitism and feeding was observed in the first five days of the adult age. The handling time for parasitism and host feeding increased with the age of female wasp. The highest searching efficiency and shortest handling time for host attacked (Parasitism and feeding) were gained in day 5 and day 2 and maximum parasitism and host feeding in days 2 and 3 of adult female age, respectively. We conclude that P. zdeneki demonstrated a reasonable performance as a potential biocontrol agent by feeding and parasitism of E. pakistanica which gained its maximum efficiency within 2 to 5 days of its life.

 

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The genus Ametastegia Costa 1882 (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae: Allantinae) was studied in northern Iran. The specimens were collected using sweeping net and Malaise traps during March to November 2010 and 2011. Four species were collected and identified of which Ametastegia persica Khayrandish, Talebi & Blank sp. n. is described as new to science. An illustrated key for identification of Ametastegia species in Iran is provided.

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A survey on the megachilid bees (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) fauna of northern Iran, between 2010 and 2011, led to the identification of eleven species of the genus Coelioxys Latreille belonging to subgenera Allocoelioxys (6 species), Boreocoelioxys (2 species), Coelioxys (2 species) and Liothyrapis (1 species). Of these, six species and one subgenus (Liothyrapis) are new to the fauna of Iran. Detailed illustrations of morphological characters, a key to the species of the genus Coelioxys and an updated checklist of Iranian species of Coelioxys are provided.

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The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) is a serious and economically important pest of cruciferous crops worldwide. The nutritional indices of this pest on four host plants including two canola (SLM₀₄₆ and RGS₀₀₃) and two cabbage cultivars (Green-Cornet and Glob-Master) were determined under laboratory conditions (25 ± 0.5 °C, 65 ± 5% RH and 16: 8 L: D h). The highest relative consumption rate (RCR) and relative growth rate (RGR) were recorded on RGS₀₀₃ (95.68 ± 14.52 mg/mg/day) and SLM₀₄₆(0.382 ± 0.041 mg/mg/day), respectively. The efficiency of the conversion of ingested food (ECI) and efficiency of conversion of digested food (ECD) were significantly higher on SLM₀₄₆ (2.298 ± 0.646 and 2.471 ± 0.719%, respectively). However, there was no significant difference among cultivars regarding approximate digestibility (AD) index. The highest feeding performance of the larvae of P. xylostella was found on SLM₀₄₆. The nutritional indices are appropriate tools in host plant resistance evaluation and they also could provide profound understanding of the behavioral and physiological bases of insect-host plant interactions.  

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The cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), is a serious pest on a wide range of economic crops in many parts of the world. In this study, digestive proteolytic and amylolytic activities of H. armigera larvae (3^rd to 5^th instars) were evaluated on five main host plants including chickpea (cv Hashem), cowpea (cv Mashhad), soybean (cv 033), navybean (cv Dehghan), and corn (cv SC 704) at 25 ± 1 °C, relative humidity of 65 ± 5% and a photoperiod of 16: 8 (L: D) hours. The results indicated that the highest enzyme activity was in 5^th instar. The highest general protease activity of 3^rd, 4^th and 5^thinstar larvae was found on corn. The larvae fed on corn had the lowest trypsin activity. This leads to hyperproduction of chymotrypsin and elastase-like enzymes to compensate the inhibition of trypsin. The larvae of H. armigera reared on cowpea had the highest level of amylase activity, and the lowest activity was in the larvae fed on corn. The results revealed that among host plants tested, corn was more resistant (unsuitable) to H. armigera. Study on digestive proteolytic and amylolytic activities of H. armigera can be used in identifying the antidigestive or antifeedent compounds, which will help us to design appropriate management programs.

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It has been hypothesized that the survival, development, fecundity and population of insects are affected significantly by high temperatures. The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostell (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), is a serious and economically important pest of cruciferous crops throughout the word. In this research, the adult longevity and fecundity of P. xylostella were studied in laboratory conditions. After applying heat shock stress, (30, 35 and 40 °C) for 2, 4, 6 and 8h, the experiments were conducted at 25 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 5% RH, and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L: D)h on Brassica napus. The developmental time of immature stages were significantly affected by heat shock temperatures (30 to 40 °C) compared to the 25 °C (control), but the developmental time of larvae did not differ significantly at 40 °C. The pupal development time differed significantly at heat shock temperatures, which was longest (6.13 ± 0.05 days) at 30 °C for 2h. Heat shock temperature also had significant impact on adult longevity and fecundity of diamondback moth. The longest adult longevity for females and males was determined to be 14.47 ± 1.04 and 11.04±0.95 days respectively at 35 °C for 2h. The fecundity of females fluctuated significantly with increasing temperature stress. Our findings provide useful information on the potential of this insect in response to environmental temperature changes.

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The present study deals with the fauna of the genera Laphria Meigen, 1803 and Pogonosoma Rondani, 1856 in Iran. Specimens were collected, using Malaise traps, from Guilan and Mazandaran provinces during 2010-2012. Overall, four species were identified, of which the two species, Laphria caspica Hermann, 1906 and Pogonosoma unicolor Loew, 1873 are newly recorded from Iran. The diagnostic characters and supplementary photographs of the newly recorded species are provided.
 
 

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Health and environmental side effects of chemical insecticides and development of resistant population of Helicoverpa armigera Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to pesticides have resulted in increasing demands for non-chemical control approaches against this pest. In this research, the efficacy of two biological control agents were studied under field condition. Treatments consisted of releasing Habrobracon hebetor (Say) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Trichogramma evanescence Westwood (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) and combination of H. hebetor + T. evanescence (HABROBRACON-TRICO). The results revealed significant differences in the number of infested tomato fruits among treatments and harvesting times. The infested fruits was the lowest (2.68 ± 0.14%) in plots treated by HABROBRACON-TRICO. Moreover, the highest (3.36 ± 0.50%) and the lowest (2.88 ± 0.22%) damaged fruits was recorded in the second and fourth harvesting times, respectively. There was significant interaction between harvesting times and treatments. Regarding the tomato yield in treatments, findings revealed significant difference among treatments in both main harvesting times. However, there was no significant differences in total yield in treatments. It could be concluded that biological control agents can be used as a promising alternative for synthetic insecticides in control of H. armigera in tomato farms without significant crop losses.

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Deep understanding of biological and behavioral characteristics of trichogrammatid wasps, helps us for better and more efficient rearing of these parasitoids. In the current study, Trichogramma brassicae Bezdenko (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) was reared on Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) for several generations and the effect of long-term rearing of the parasitoid on some of its attributes like parasitism capability, emergence rate, sex ratio, and wingless rate of adults was determined in both laboratory and insectarium conditions. The laboratory investigation showed that long-term rearing decreased fitness of the parasitoid, so that, parasitism rate and adult emergence rate decreased. By contrast, sex ratio and number of wingless individuals increased with increasing generations. Our results in insectarium were a little different. However, adult emergence rate had significant difference and trichocards quality decreased with increasing generations. The sex ratio in different periods had no significant difference. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in wingless rate in different rearing time periods. Accordingly, the parasitoid’s fitness was affected by number of generations in both conditions. Although, mass rearing under laboratory condition provided wasps with more desired traits than those reared in insectary, both decreased fitness of T. brassicae when number of generations increased.
 

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The agromyzid leafminers, Liriomyza sativae Blanchard and L. trifolii (Burgess) (Dip-tera: Agromyzidae) are major pests that attack vegetables in Varamin, Tehran Province. The parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) of these pests were investigated during 2003. The leafminer infested leaves were collected from different host plants, in particular cu-cumber (Cucumis sativus L.,) and preserved under laboratory conditions until the parasi-toids emerged. The vegetable leafminer were parasitized by an expected range of parasi-toids. The parasitoid species included Cirrospilus vittatus Walker, Hemiptarsenus zilahise-bessi Erdös, Closterocerus formosus Westwood, Diglyphus isaea (Walker), Diglyphus crassinervis Erdös. and Pnigalio sp. nr. pectinicornis. The most common species was D. isaea, followed by C. formosus and D. crassinervis. Although insecticides were applied con-tinuously for control of leafminers, the mean seasonal percentage of parasitism was 51.12%. The morphological characteristics of each species are given in brief.

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The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) is one of the most destructive insect pests, feeding exclusively on wild and cultivated cruciferous species. The attacked plants produce considerable amount of glucosinolates in response to insects’ feeding. Herein, we studied digestive activities of P. xylostella on four different genotypes of family Brassicaceae including two canola cultivars (SLM₀₄₆ and RGS₀₀₃) and two cabbage cultivars (Green-Cornet and Glob-Master). The highest proteolytic and amylolytic activities of P. xylostella were observed on Green-Cornet and the lowest occurred on RGS₀₀₃ and Glob-Master, respectively. The highest activity of α-glucosidase and β-glucosidases were observed on Green-Cornet and SLM₀₄₆ and the lowest was observed on Glob-Master and RGS₀₀₃. The zymogram analysis revealed different isozymes of protease, trypsin-like and α-amylase in the midgut extract of P. xylostella. Activity of the above mentioned isozymes was inhibited in larvae feeding on RGS₀₀₃ and Glob Master as resistant host cultivars. Also, larvae feeding on the resistant genotypes showed more glucosidase activities, indicating possibility of high glycosinolate existence in the resistant genotypes. By these results we can state that host plant property can affect insect digestive physiology through inhibiting digestive enzyme activities. These findings provide insights into the direct effects of host plants on insect physiology which are conducive to change in insect fitness.

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For successful implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs, having knowledge on lethal and low-lethal effects of pesticides on natural enemies is necessary. The present study evaluated the low-lethal effect of thiamethoxam on life table parameters of the subsequent generation of the predatory mite, Neoseiulus californicus McGregor (Acari: Phytoseiidae) fed on Tetranychus urticae Koch under laboratory conditions. The low-lethal concentrations LC₅, LC₁₀ and LC₂₀ were determined based on a dose-effect assay. The raw data were analyzed based on age-stage two sex life table analysis. Exposure to the low-lethal concentrations of thiamethoxam had no significant effects on developmental time of offspring of treated mites. Compared with control treatment, the oviposition period of treated mites with LC₅, LC₁₀ and LC₂₀ decreased significantly. The highest and lowest values of total fecundity were obtained at control (35.3 eggs/female/day) and LC₂₀ (23.6 eggs /female/day), respectively. The net reproductive rate (R₀) decreased with increasing dose from LC₅ (22.6 offspring) to LC₂₀ (15.0 offspring). The intrinsic rate of increase (r) and finite rate of increase (λ), were not affected by increasing concentrations. The mean generation time (T) decreased significantly at upper dose (LC₂₀ = 13.2 d), compared with control (14.7 d). In consequence, the low-lethal concentration influences of thiamethoxam in combination with N. californicus in order to design management programs of T. urticae are discussed.
 

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The two-spotted spider mite (TSSM), Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) is a serious pest of many greenhouse crops such as bean, cucumber, rose and other products. The control of this important pest has been mainly based on the use of acaricides. Phytoseiid mites are used mostly for biological control of pest mites. In this study, control of TSSM by phytoseiid predatory mites, Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, Amblyseius swirskii Athias-Henriot and Neoseiulus californicus McGregor was evaluated on four rose varieties including Avalanche, Dolcevita, Samurai and Sorbet in a commercial rose greenhouse. The total number of motile stages and eggs of each studied species on a leaf were counted weekly, through a zigzag sampling pattern and using a hand lens. The sampling was carried out randomly and the leaves of a rose plant were taken from the canopy base (shoots bent over beds), the middle (area between base and top) and the top of the canopy (flowering shoots), which added up to a total of 30 leaves. The highest population density of TSSM per leaf was recorded on Samurai (17.96 ± 0.85) and the lowest population density was observed on Dolcevita (5.32 ± 0.39). Based on population fluctuation data of TSSM and its predators on four rose varieties, it was found that the predatory mite P. persimilis had the ability to reduce the high TSSM density and N. californicus also continued to operate in low TSSM density, but A. swirskii did not have a clear impact on TSSM density reduction.
 
 

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The fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea (Drury, 1773) (Lepidoptera, Erebidae), is one of the most important pests of forest trees in northern Iran. In order to identify the native parasitoids of this pest a survey was conducted in Guilan province, in 2019. The larvae and pupae of the fall webworm suspected being parasitized, were collected from different host trees and wood piles, and reared under laboratory conditions until the parasitoids emerged. This pest was found parasitized with five species of Hymenoptera, Brachymeria lasus (Walker, 1841) (Chalcididae), Chouioia cunea Yang, 1989 (Eulophidae), Psychophagus omnivorus (Walker, 1835) (Pteromalidae), Pimpla rufipes Brulle, 1846, Virgichneumon dumeticola (Gravenhorst, 1829) (Ichneumonidae), and four species of Diptera, Compsilura concinnata (Meigen, 1824), Exorista larvarum (Linnaeus, 1758), Pales sp. (Tachinidae), and Megaselia scalaris (Loew, 1866) (Phoridae). Among them six species (e.g., P. rufipes, V. dumeticola, B. lasus, E. larvarum, C. concinnata and Pales sp.) are newly reported as the parasitoids of H. cunea from Iran.

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Organisms are often exposed to various stresses such as heat. The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) is a serious pest of cruciferous crops in Iran and the world. The effect of short-term temperature stress on egg stage of P. xylostella and its demographic parameters were studied under laboratory conditions. Diamondback moth eggs were exposed to 30, 35 and 40 °C for durations of 2, 4, 6, 8 h and then returned to normal temperature condition (25 °C). The results showed that P. xylostella eggs successfully developed to adulthood at short-term (2, 4, 6 and 8 h) high temperatures stress. The ovipositional period was significantly longer at 30 °C for 8 h, 35 °C for 2 h and 40 °C for 4 h than for other periods of stress. There is a significant difference in the net reproduction rate (R₀) among the short-term high temperature stresses treatments. The highest and lowest R₀ was obtained at 30 °C for 8 and 4 h, respectively. The intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) was also found to be significantly affected by stress temperatures. The r_m-value ranged from 0.15 ± 0.009 (30 °C for 4 h) to 0.22 ± 0.004 (35 °C for 8 h). Knowledge of the effect of temperature on demographic parameters of P. xylostella could be useful in the integrated pest management for forecasting the population dynamics of this economic pest of brassicas, thereby reducing insecticide inputs, negative environmental impacts and saving hundreds of millions of dollars annually.

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The cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), is a destructive pest on a wide range of economic crops in many parts of the world. In this research, demographic parameters of H. armigera were determined on five host plant species including cowpea (cv. Mashhad), navy bean (cv. Dehghan), chickpea (cv. Hashem), soybean (cv. 033) and corn (cv. Single cross 704). All experiments were carried out under laboratory conditions at 25 ± 1°C, 65 ± 5% RH and a photoperiod of 16: 8 (L: D) h. The results revealed that females and males had the shortest development time on chickpea (36.16 and 34.98 d, respectively) and the longest development time on corn (42.00 and 42.95 d, respectively). The highest daily and total fecundity of H. armigera were observed on cowpea and the lowest ones were on corn. The values of the intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) on the above-mentioned host plants were 0.180, 0.144, 0.161, 0.161 and 0.126 day^-1, respectively. Also, the values of the net reproductive rate (R₀) were 365.66, 294.28, 365.67, 239.69 and 147.40 female offspring, respectively. The longest mean generation time (T) (37.90 ± 0.26 d) and doubling time (DT) (5.62 ± 0.17 d) were observed on corn. Our findings revealed that cowpea and corn were the most susceptible and resistant host plants to H. armigera, respectively.

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For effective integrated pest management (IPM) programs, it is essential to determine the thermal requirements and apply an accurate forecasting method based on daily degree units of pests. The present study investigated the physiological time (Degree-Days) and the number of generations of tomato leaf miner (TLM), Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) in Varamin region (Tehran, Iran) on two tomato cultivars (Cal JN3 and Early Urbana Y) under field-cage and open-field conditions during tomato growing seasons in 2015 and 2016. The environmental temperature was recorded hourly using an electronic data logger. The results indicated that TLM completed three generations during tomato growing seasons on the two tomato cultivars in both years. Degree-days for each generation and the thermal requirements of immature stages were a little different under field-cage and open-field conditions in 2015 and 2016. Furthermore, the pest completed each generation, one to three days earlier in the open-field conditions depending on tomato cultivars. On the whole, findings of this study can improve monitoring and forecasting phenological events of T. absoluta and thereby assist in timely adoption of management practices in IPM programs.
 

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The cypress tree mealybug, Planococcus vovae (Nasonov) (Hem., Pseudococcidae) is one of the most important pests of cypress trees, especially Cupressus semprevirens fastigiata L. in Iran. A survey was carried out to determine the natural enemies of cypress tree mea-lybug in Tehran Province, during 2004-2005. As a result of this study, 17 species of preda-tors, parasitoids and hyperparasitoids belonging to 10 families and 15 genera were col-lected and identified. Among the natural enemies associated with P. vovae three species, Coccidoxenoides perminutus Girault (Hym., Encyrtidae), Aprostocetus ceroplastae (Girault) (Hym., Eulophidae) and Pachyneuron bonum Xu and Li (Hym., Pteromalidae) were recorded here for the first time from Iran. The diagnostic morphological character-istics of the newly recorded species are given here and illustrated. The host range and economic importance of its natural enemies are reviewed and discussed.